Abstract:
Sand Mining (SM) is the extraction of sand aggregate from land surface and water bodies. Globally, sand is
a critical resource for construction purposes. In Nigeria, SM is a process that degenerates into land
degradation and conflict involving a network of people and structures. Extant studies have focused more on
sand extraction and environmental degradation than its associated structures and conflicts. This study,
therefore, examined land degradation and conflict management due to SM, with a view to determining the
extent of SM, the structural organisations involved, livelihood implications of resultant land degradation, the
networks of associated conflict and the conflict management mechanisms in Evbuobanosa Dukedom, Edo
State, Nigeria.
Theory of Ecological Marxism guided the study, while the exploratory design was adopted. Qualitative data
were purposively collected from Abudu, Evbuobanosa and Iru communities. Secondary data were sourced
from the records of Federal Ministry of Mines and Steel, Benin-city office. Key Informant Interviews were
conducted with 10 community leaders, six youth leaders, four pit owners and four environmental
management experts. In-depth interviews were conducted with 40 sand miners, four SM association leaders,
six tipper drivers, 18 farmers and eight fishermen. Eighteen Focus Group Discussion sessions were held
with sand miners (9), farmers (4) and community members (5). Two case studies were also conducted with
sand miners. Data were content-analysed.
Sand was mined extensively, legally and illegally. Most mining sites (81.4%) were illegal with depth of 1-3
meters, each covering about 1011m2 and mined until stopped by regulators. Illegal miners thereafter, moved
elsewhere to continue mining. Legal mines had depths ranging from 25-34 meters covering between
1011m2-32,374m2 and could reach down to the water table. The structural organisation of SM included the
positional elites: community elders and legal miners, and artisanal working-class, illegal miners, mine
workers, tipper loaders and drivers. Legal miners had renewable five-year mining permits. Site operations
were largely mechanised and performed by three principal workers: manager, cashier and machine operators
under close monitoring of legal miners to forestall fraud. Illegal mining was executed manually, on land and
in water with slightly differing structures. On land, sand scouts/encroachers, loaders and drivers were
involved, while diver-excavator, jerker (sand shoveler from canoe to beach), tipper drivers and loaders were
involved in water excavation. Sand mining exacerbated flooding and induced landslides with devastating
impact on the farmers. The SM drove aquatic lives out of the reach of fishermen. Legal and illegal miners
clashed over sites and with indigenes. The conflict networks included guilds, kins, and fraternities: Asigidi,
Osokpikan, Ogboni, Vikings, Black Axe, and Eiye among other fraternities. Conflict management
mechanisms included negotiation and appeasement between parties. Unresolved cases were referred to the
elders’ council, Ogwedion, where defaulting parties were sanctioned with traditional fines:
Odegbeˋn’ekpetin.
Sand mining in Evbuobanosa, Edo State is structured on positional elite-artisanal working class relationalplatform, accommodated by traditional arrangements and legal-rational permits. Its conflict management
mechanisms were based on traditional institutions. Government needs to implement sustainable mining
regulations to minimise land degradation.